Effects of Bullying on Health: A Social-Ecological Approach to Understanding Why Bullies Bully and P
What is Bullying?
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), bullying is “characterized by the repeated exposure of one person to physical and/or emotional aggression including teasing, name calling, mockery, threats, harassment, taunting, hazing, social exclusion or rumours” (Srabstein & Leventhal, 2010). Bullying can take on many forms including physical, verbal, relational or cyber aggression and the imbalance of power between victim and perpetrator may be either physical, psychological or both (Liu & Graves, 2012).
(This video shows what children think bullying behaviour is).
Why is Bullying a Problem?
School bullying and peer victimization have become major social problems that are affecting children and youth all over the world. In 2010, WHO described bullying as a “major public health problem that demands the concerted and coordinated time and attention of health-care providers, policy-makers and families” (Srabstein & Leventhal, 2010).
The statistics around bullying are astonishing with at least 1 in 3 adolescent students in Canada having reported being bullied recently, and 47% of parents reporting having a child victim of bullying. Further, the rate of discrimination experienced among students who identify as Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans-Identified, Two-Spirited, Queer or Questioning (LGBTQ) is three times higher than heterosexual youth (Government of Canada, 2012).
The Effects of Bullying on Health
Bullying is an important public health problem that can have serious short-term and long-term implications on the physical and mental well-being of both the victim and the bully. A recent study has shown that there is a strong association between bullying and the development of mental health and behaviour problems (Canadian Medical Association Journal, 2018).
According to the Centers for Disease Control and the Government of Canada, children who are victimized are at increased risk of depression, generalized anxiety, sleep difficulties, loss of self-esteem and in extreme cases suicide. Children who are bullied have also suffered from a range of physical symptoms including headaches, and gastrointestinal problems (Brooks, 2016).
The World Health Organization (WHO) states that “students involved in bullying are at a significant risk of experiencing a wide spectrum of psychosomatic symptoms, running away from home, alcohol and drug abuse, absenteeism and, above all, self-inflicted, accidental or perpetrated injuries” (Srabstein & Leventhal, 2010).
Children who bully others are more likely to develop substance abuse problems than those not involved in bullying, and are at increased risk of academic problems and violence later in life (Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016). Children who are bullied are also more likely to experiment with drugs and alcohol compared to their peers who were not victimized. Victims participate in the use drugs and alcohol as a form of “self-medication” in order to “try to relieve painful feelings or control their emotions” (Rapaport, 2017).
Application of a Social-Ecological Model to Bullying Behaviour
Bullying is not a simple problem that exists solely between a bully and a victim. “Bullying and victimization in school are reciprocally influenced by the individual, family, school, peer group, nearer community, and society” (Liu & Graves, 2012).
American Psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner was best known for having developed the Human Ecological Systems Theory which explains how the inherent qualities of a child and the external environment impacts their growth and development. His model looks at the individual as nested within five levels of external influence including the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem and the chronosystem.
The following sections will further examine the factors that influence bullying behaviour and victimization within Urie Bronfenbrenner’s framework.
Image Retrieved from Google Images
Individual Characteristics
Individual characteristics such as age, gender, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, and health status are important factors in understanding bullying behaviour. Several studies report that “males are more likely to exhibit and self-report physical and direct forms of bullying, whereas females engage more in relational and indirect forms of bullying” (Liu & Graves, 2012).
Individual health can also place children and youth at risk of bullying at school. Research has shown a strong association between childhood obesity and peer victimization. Studies report that “overweight and obese youth were more likely to bully other students than normal weight students” (Hong & Espelage, 2012) and that “overweight and obese youth of both genders are at increased risk of peer victimization in school” (Espelage, 2015).
(This video is an example of how females are more likely to engage in indirect or relational forms of bullying).
The Microsystem
The microsystem examines the interactions between the individual and their immediate settings and has the most direct impact on bullying behaviour. For example, relationships with parents and peers.
There are a number of family characteristics that can contribute to bullying behaviour including a negative family environment, poor parental supervision, domestic violence, parental conflict, inappropriate discipline and lack of parental emotional support (Swearer & Hymel, 2015). On the contrary, supportive familial relationships can act as a protective barrier against the effects of bullying and aid in bully-victim resilience (Espelage, 2015).
School aged children spend majority of their day interacting with their peers, subsequently peer relationships play an important role when it comes to bullying behaviour. The saying “birds of a feather flock together” can be true in this case as children who have friends that bully and engage in name-calling are more likely to follow suit (Espelage, 2015). However, peer acceptance, popularity and positive friendships can serve as a protective barrier against peer victimization (Hong & Espelage, 2012).
The dynamics of bullying extend beyond the bully and the victim. Bystanders can perpetuate bullying by passively accepting the behaviour or even actively joining in (Espelage, 2015). For example, bystanders are "characterized as standing around watching fights without helping the victim” (Hong & Espelage, 2012), and often encourage or “help the bully by warning them if an adult is coming” (Hong & Espelage, 2012). On the other hand, bystanders can intervene to stop bullying and help the victim. Research has shown that “girls are more likely than boys to intervene on behalf of victims” (Espelage, 2015). Those who defend victims have more empathy, are usually higher in social status, and are generally well liked by their peers (Swearer & Hymel, 2015). Evidence suggests that “high social status may lend confidence to one’s capacity to intervene and reduce concerns about retaliation” (Swearer& Hymel, 2015).
(This video is an example of how bystanders can contribute to bullying behaviour, or how they can help stop it).
The Mesosystem
The mesosystem encompasses the connections between the different microsystems that involve the individual (e.g. interactions between home and school). Experiences in one microsystem can influence the interactions in another. For example, interactions with “teachers and school officials can influence students’ relationships with their peers and their perceptions of school environment” (Espelage, 2012).
Teachers and administrators play a significant role in the context of bullying in schools. Inappropriate teacher responses, poor teacher-student relationships, and lack of support from teachers has been linked to higher levels of bullying and victimization (Swearer & Hymel, 2015). On the other hand, positive involvement of teachers’ in their students’ academic and social lives decreases students feeling unsafe in their school environment (Hong & Espelage, 2012). Further, when teachers intervene appropriately in peer conflicts, students are more willing to seek help from teachers and school officials (Espelage, 2015).
The Exosystem
The exosystem goes beyond the immediate system containing the individual and examines how surrounding settings can indirectly influence the growth and development of a child. For example, neighbourhood and media environments.
Neighbourhood environments can influence bullying behaviour. Research has shown that there is an association between neighbourhood violence and bullying behaviour, and that “youth residing in unsafe neighbourhoods are likely to experience bullying victimization” (Hong & Espelage, 2012).
Technological advancements in the 21st century has brought more attention to the relationship between media exposure and aggressive behaviour among adolescents. Researchers have consistently found “that youths’ exposure to violence on television, video games, and the internet increases the likelihood of aggressive thoughts and behaviours” (Hong & Espelage, 2012). Although media violence in television, movies, music and video games does not directly cause aggressive tendencies, studies have shown that students behaviours, attitudes and beliefs are largely moulded by media influences (Government of Canada, 2012).
The Macrosystem
The macrosystem is the most distal from the individual and is also referred to as a cultural “blueprint” that encompasses societal norms and beliefs and their influence on the immediate system levels involving the individual.
Culture influences the way people behave. It is important to examine the more distal factors that can impact bullying behaviour. According to Liu and Graves, societal attitudes and opinions on gun legislation, public acceptance of “hazing” in both academic and sports environments, or the tendency to dismiss physical violence with a “boys will be boys”outlook should be considered (Liu & Graves, 2012).
The Chronosystem
The final level of this ecological framework includes consistency or change of the individual and the environment over time. Pivotal changes in family structure, such as divorce, have been linked to negative youth outcomes and aggressive behaviour. Compared to children with stable family structures, “children in divorced or remarried families exhibited higher levels of aggression, non-compliance, disobedience, inappropriate classroom conduct, and decreased level of self-regulation” (Hong & Espelage, 2012).
Conclusion
In summary, bullying is a multifaceted problem that is influenced by several factors. Social-ecological models can help us understand the complexities of bullying behaviour by examining the individual and their broader social environment at different levels. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s model can be used to help us find solutions to bullying perpetration and victimization at each level. This framework can help us increase bullying awareness and implement better bullying prevention and intervention programs.
References
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an Experimental Ecology of Human Development. Retrieved from
Brooks, M. (2016). Bullying: Serious, Lasting Psychological Consequences. Retrieved from
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). Understanding Bullying. Retrieved from
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Rapaport, L. (2017). Bullied Teens More Likely to Smoke, Drink and Use Drugs. Retrieved from
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Srabstein, J. & Leventhal, B.L. (2010). Prevention of bullying-related morbidity and mortality: a call for public health policies. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 88:403-403. Retrieved from
Swearer, S.M., Hymel, S. (2015). Understanding the Psychology of Bullying: Moving Toward a Social-Ecological Diathesis-Stress Model. Educational Psychology Papers and Publications, 175. Retrieved from